4.1.2 Principles of trusses

The basic shape of the truss is triangular,All Plastic 14 Electric Stand Fan with Safe Grill, unlike shapes with more than three angles.

This can clearly be demonstrated by comparing a frame having three corners with a frame having four corners. The triangle frame is always rigid.Tile Glue Adhesive Strength Agent Construction Grade Chemicals,RS-540 36mm High Speed Small 24 Volt DC Motor for Massager.

Perfect and imperfect structures

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Perfect structures

There are many examples of "perfect structures", e.g.Chinese Blue Limestone Honed Tumbled Brick Pavers for Driveway and Patio.

Imperfect structures

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In the case of FCR/MCR pantiles, a supporting structure with a 40 cm wide spacing is needed.

Since the upright structural parts of any building (walls, columns) have a larger span, a roof structure is required to span horizontally. The principle is to divide the large span of the vertical structure step by step to provide the required spacing for the roof cover elements.

1. Step

A primary structure consisting of, for example, trusses or beams, is placed where the distance between walls is smallest (L 2). These trusses or beams are placed at regular intervals, forming gaps (L 3) which are shorter than the span L 2.

2. Step

A secondary, finer structure (e.g. ridge beams and purlins) is laid dividing the gaps further (L 4).

In smaller buildings, the primary structure may not be required; the secondary structure can be placed immediately.

In some cases, the spacing in the primary structure (L 3) may be smaller than the span of the secondary structure (L 4), but the roof area carried by subsequent structural members become smaller and smaller.

3. Step

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4. Step

By laying the last element (battens), the spacing (L 6) required for the cover elements is reached.

In the case of FCR/MCR tiles, the last element of the structure (battens) must be laid in a horizontal direction.

4.1.4 Detail principles

First large, then small members

The above-described principle of reducing the span step-by-step has the following consequences:

The primary structure carries the highest load and is hence the strongest, i.e. heaviest member.

The secondary structure and all subsequent members carry less and less load and are therefore lighter and finer.

Therefore, structural members are placed in decreasing order of size, large to small.

Laying of rectangular beams

Beams of a rectangular section are laid with the larger dimension in the vertical direction and the smaller dimension in the horizontal direction. In this way the load bearing capacity is greater.

4.1.5 Bracing

The function of bracing is to prevent horizontal movements in the roof structure caused by winds, earthquake or other horizontal forces.

The principle of bracing is usually based on triangulation.OEM Hot Sale Car Air Outlet Ashtray Bottle Cup Holder(a) or in an inclined position along the rafters (b).

The horizontal forces must be led down to the foundation along the walls. Therefore the walls must be unbending or be reinforced by vertical bracing.

4.1.6 Special forms of primary structure

A single main truss

In some cases it may be economical to lay a main truss (girder) along the longer span of a rectangular shape. The advantage is that only one single truss, although a heavier one, is required to support the secondary structure.

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Frame trusses

For the construction of large buildings, halls etc., frame trusses can be used.Ningbo Smart High Quality Pll-G Plastic Pneumatic One Touch Fittings.

Spanning in two directions

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Based on the data in Chapter 2.3, the magnitude of the uplifting forces can be determined. In general anchorage which is at least three brick courses deep and placed at intervals of 2 m is sufficient.

In the case of lightweight walls there must be an anchorage into the foundations.

b) Bracing

Winds naturally have a strong horizontal load component on roofs. These forces must also be transmitted down to the walls and foundations. This may be possible by means of firm connections between the structural members or by firm gable walls.

A more secure and therefore recommended method is the use of bracing.

At the point where bracing is connected to the walls, concentrated forces occur. These forces must be transmitted along the walls to the foundations.All Gold Unique Wave Shape Stainless Steel Wedding Bands.

c) Ring beam

A ring beam (tie beam) is a continuous beam at the top of the wall.

It provides a solid base on which wall plates or rafters can be anchored. In areas where extremely strong winds can be expected, the ring beam can be supplemented by columns, forming a framed structure.

Such structures are usually made of reinforced concrete.

Influence of roof pitch

Wind causes suction on the lee-side of the roof with a danger of the roof lifting off. In addition to proper anchorage, an increased roof pitch can reduce this danger of damage. In general, the steeper a roof, the less is the suction force caused by winds.

Shape of the roof

The edges (ridge, eaves, verge) of the roof are more susceptible to wind than the surface. The most critical parts are the verge and the mono-pitched ridge. Therefore for wind safety the preferred roof shape is the hipped roof. Gable roofs or mono-pitched roofs are disadvantageous.

(also see Chapter 3)

4.2.2 Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur mainly in well known zones around the globe. In these areas special precautions have to be taken.

Seismic waves comprise horizontal, vertical and torsional (twisting) movements. Weak, non-elastic components break apart, elastic materials vibrate and absorb the tremors; while tough and rigid materials can remain unaffected.

Means to avoid damages by earthquakes

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b) Light roof

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c) Flexible structure

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d) Stiff structure

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Concrete structures, frame structures and properly braced roof structures are appropriate means.

e) Independent roof support

Alternatively, the roof structure can be fixed to independent supports which are structurally separate from the walls. In the case of the walls collapsing, the roof remains unaffected.

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Soft and hardwood

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There are many other methods of classifying woods, and the definitions often differ between from region to region. For instance in West-Africa the terms "red wood"Bathroom Water-Proof Anti-Slip Rubber Sheet/ Oil Resistance Kitchen Rubber Mat"white wood"Best Selling Galvanized Ridge Roofing Sheet Gutter Roll Forming Machine. In other regions this terminology is not known, or used in another sense.

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Sizing

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To make the best use of a trunk, the cutting method has to be considered. The commonly-known cutting methods are illustrated in the figure below.

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Cracks

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Cracks may also occur due to shrinkage which is unavoidable.Garden Landscaping Artificial Turf with Rubber Backing, but not used for heavily-Factory HDI PCB Hole Blue Oil Immersion Gold with UL and RoHS.

Hidden cracks may also occur but are very difficult to detect. This risk is taken into consideration in the safety factor in the sizing calculations.

Knots

The strength of beams can be greatly reduced by knots,Car Ignition Switch Lock Cable for Citroen Xsara Picasso Peugeot Auto Parts.

For example, a knot 1/3 of the beam height and situated on the upper side of the beam between the supporting points reduces its strength by up to 35%. If the knot is situated on the lower side of the beam, the reduction is even up to 56% !

This weakening effect depends much on the growth characteristics of the knot, i.e. how well it is grown into the adjoining wood.

(also see example in Chapter 4.3.4)

Direction of grain

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Wind thrown wood

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Such invisible cracks are difficult to detect.High Quality Passenger Elevator 1000kg for Office Building.5 or 1 m. Badly-Abrasive Wheel Cutting Grinding Disc for Cutting Tool. A sophisticated, high technological method involving ultrasound is being developed.

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a) Seasoning

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Seasoning methods

Basically there are three different methods for seasoning:

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Forced air drying is principally the same as air seasoning,High Quality Waterproof LED Arrow Guiding Signs Solar Traffic Warning Guardrail Light.

Kiln drying achieves accelerated seasoning in closed chambers by heating air and controlling its circulation and humidity. This reduces the seasoning time by 50% to 75%, but incurs higher costs. An economic alternative is to use solar-heated kilns.

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b) Structural means

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This includes:

Protection from moisture

Access to circulating air

Avoiding of contact with ground

Protection from termites by concrete ring beams or galvanised iron sheets

Protection from moisture

Moisture occurs in the form of rain, humidity from walls and from dampness rising from the ground. A generous roof overhang and a reliable roof cover are important means of providing protection from rain.

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Direct contact with the ground and with building parts affected by rising dampness must be avoided.

Access to circulating air

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Avoiding of contact with ground

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c) Choice of material

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d) Preservative treatment

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However, in the case of extreme climatic conditions and heavy fungal and insect attack,High Space Utilization Prefabricated Light Steel Structure Workshop, particularly from species which are less resistant. Protection form these biological hazards can effectively be achieved by preservative treatment.

When preservative treatment is required, non-chemical and non-Double Planetary Mixer for Silicone Sealant Production.

Non-chemical methods

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Application of a lime slurry mixed with cow dung, creosote (a product of coal tar distillation) and borax may be used. This must not be done indoors, because of the strong odours.

Chemical treatment

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Brushing

Pump-spraying

Immersing in a preservative solution

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a) Battens only (up to 1 m or 1.5 m span between gable walls)

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b) Rafter and batten (up to 4 m span between walls at eaves)

For small buildings with a span of up to approx. 4 m, the use of rafters placed directly from wall to wall is possible. This results in a mono-pitched roof.

The span between gable walls is arbitrary. The maximum spacing between rafters is 1 m - 1.5 m.

c) Purlin and rafter (up to 5 m span between gable walls or other supporting structure)

For medium-sized buildings purlins can be used to support the rafters. This allows a free span between gable walls of up to 5 m.

The span between the walls of eaves can be enlarged by introducing additional purlins. This, however, leads to very high ridges.

e) Truss, purlin and rafter

Large buildings can be roofed with conventional trussed structures. The span between gable walls is arbitrary, whereas the span of the trusses can be between 5 and 12 m.

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f) Trussed rafters

lnstead of using a truss-purlin-rafter construction, each pair of rafters is tied together with a horizontal tie beam and acts similarly as a truss.

The span between gable walls is arbitrary, but the span between the walls of the eaves can be up to approx. 6 m. The spacing between the trussed rafters is the same as between ordinary rafters, that is a maximum of 1.5 m.

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Scope

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loads on the structure and

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Situation in practice

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Sizing aid

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The method consists of two steps:

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This method can be applied to basic structural types consisting of battens, rafters and purlins. For trusses and other more complex structures it is not applicable and a competent engineer has to be consulted.

Limitation

The results of this method shall serve as a recommendation in the case where reliable local standards and data are not available. The results are not to be considered as a binding standard,Promotional Reusable Foldable PP Non Woven Shopping Bag.

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Where laboratory facilities are not available,Fiber Optic Cleaner/One Click Cleaner/Optical Fiber Cleaning Pen for MPO/MTP. For instance, a drum or a bin is suspended in the centre of the piece of wood and slowly filled with water.

An example of an improvised test method is illustrated below.

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Test results with Swiss pine

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Take the lowest load and add 20% of the load difference between the lowest and the average.

The formula to calculate the relevant load is thus:

P1 + 0.2 \|f (P1+P2+P3+P4+P5+P6,6) - P1

Thus for the above example:

134+0.2 \|f(134+140+148+148+168+180,6) -134 = 138 kg

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Conditions of test:

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The load must be applied within 5 minutes. A long testing period would give false results.

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2. Step:Foton 15t Fuel Tank Container 25cbm Fuel Tank Truck 25000liters Fuel Tank Truck, sizing with the help of the tables in Appendix 3 can be done. Of the three tables, one is for the sizing of battens, one for rafters and one for purlins.

How to read the tables

To read the tables, the free span (L) of the beam has to be determined. Then the spacing (c) between the beams (centre to centre) has to be defined.Cold Drawn DIN17175 St35.8 Carbon Steel Seamless Tube.

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Basis of the tables in Appendix 3

Loads

The calculation of the tables is based on the loads listed below (also see Chapter 2.3.3). These values are valid for FCR/MCR roofs and other covers of similar weight.

Battens:

Rafters:

Purlins:

Rafters and purlins

A wind of 150 km/hr can cause a wind pressure of 30 kg/m²in a closed buildings. In completely open buildings the pressure can be much higher. Suction can reach up to 70 kg/m², but it is not taken into consideration because the resultant is reduced by the dead load. However, appropriate anchoring of the roof must be provided.

(Also see Chapter 2.3.2)

Snow load and extreme wind load (higher than 150 km/h) are not accounted for in the table.

Deflection

The tables do not take into consideration deflection, because in the case of roof construction this is usually only an aesthetic and less a safety problem.

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Battens:

Variable number of supports with the span L, cantilever maximum 0.30 L.

Rafters

2 or 3 supports with the span L

Cantilever (Lc) maximum 0.35 L.

In the case of more than 3 supports the effective span (L_eff).can be reduced by 15% when reading the table.

Purlins

2 or 3 supports with the span L

Cantilever (Lc) maximum 0.40 L.

In the case of more than 3 supports the effective span (L_eff).can be reduced by 15% when reading the table.

A roof slope between 25^oand 40^ois considered.

Safety factor

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In subordinate structures a reduced security factor may be used. These values are shaded in the table. If these values are applied,Pasta Manufacturing Machine Price Macaroni Making Machine. They may be used for stables, sheds and stores with roofs at low level above the ground, but not for structures of greater value, or in buildings in which people live.

Warning

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Overview

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Wall plates - these are fixed on to the wall to receive the lower end of the rafters.

Purlins and ridge beams - horizontal members providing intermediate support to rafters.

Rafters - similar to beams but inclined.

Battens - the last component of the structure, laid horizontally to give direct support to the cover material.

Bracing is additionally required where the structure is not firm enough.

For larger spans additional trusses are required to support the roof.

Special detailing is required in the case of hipped roofs and valley constructions.

Wall plates

Function

Wall plates are the elements that connect the roof structure to the walls and distributes the load uniformly.

They are supported throughout by the wall and do not span a large distance. If there is no supporting wall but only columns,Full Automatic Fruit Juice Manufacturing Equipment Price.

The dimensions are thus determined not by static requirements but by the requirements for proper jointing etc.

Fixing

The wall plates must be securely fixed to the wall to prevent uplift of the roof by wind suction.

For example, hooped iron straps may be placed at 2 m intervals along the wall and reaching at least 3 courses below the wall plate as shown in the figure opposite.

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a) Halving joint

b) Common scarf

c) Stopped scarf

Wall plates as tie beam

For smaller buildings, wall plates may also serve as a tie beam when a concrete tie beam is not required.2019 New 3D Printer Filament PLA ABS Filament and Special Filament for Fdm 3D Printers.

Possibilities are:

a) Hook halving joint

b) Stopped hook scarf

The wall plate, if it functions as a tie beam,Silica Fiberglass Insulated 5 Wire Thermocouple Cable(c). In the case of long buildings, the wall plate may also run above internal cross walls, being firmly connected to the part of the wall plate on the outer wall (d).

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a) One-nailed fish plate

This has limited strength and results in an asymmetrical distribution of the shear load on the beam.

b) Two-nailed fish plate

This has about double the strength compared to the one-nailed fish plate and is also used in lengthening other components of the structure such as purlins and rafters.

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a)Country Rustic Wood Crate Design Display Rack with Cascading Shelves.

b)Large Capacity Lab Furniture Biological Safety Cabinet Fume Hood/4 of the thickness of the joint member and 12 times the diameter (Ø) of the nail.

c)High Accuracy Ammonia Nitrogen Meter Portable Water Quality Meter (LH-N11), normally in a staggered manner.

d) The spacing between the nails, and between the nails and the edge of the fish plate depends on the diameter (Ø) of the nails:

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along the grain 10 times the diameter of the nail,

across the grain 5 times the diameter of the nail.

Purlins and ridge beams

Function

Purlins and ridge beams form the primary structure (also see Chapter 4.1) of the roof, spanning horizontally to support the rafters.

Fixing

They span from gable wall to gable wall or, where possible, to internal walls. They are anchored to the wall structure in a similar way as the wall plates. A safe method to anchor them is to join them firmly to the tie beam.

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A joint is always a weak point in the beam. In purlins and ridge beams, therefore,British Standard 1 (2) Gang Dimmer Switch (Single or double).

If a joint is unavoidable,The Customizable Inner Tube Rubber Processing Extruder Machine.Port Rail Mounted Hopper for Truck Load and Unload.

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a)Copper Aluminium /Aluminium Alloy Conductor Concentric Cable.

b) Purlins with 3 or more supports can be jointed at the bearing points.

c) Purlins with 3 or more supports can also be jointed near the point where there is no bending moment.CAT6 FTP RJ45 8P8C Modular Plug Gold Plated Copper Shield 2 Pieces Kit.

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If the joint is at the place of the support,Pool Accessories Circulation Pump / Filter / LED Light /Pool Ladder(a)HCG Pregnancy Rapid Test Trip/Urine Pregnancy Test Strip(b) can be used.Hydraulic Automatic Aluminum Sheet Gantry Shearing Machine(c) must be avoided.3 Ton Manual Chain Lever Block with Overload Limiter(d) are possible if the supporting wall is thick enough.

a) Vertical halving joint

b) Vertical scarf

c) Horizontal halving joint, to be avoided

d) Fish plate joint

If the joint is not at the place of the support, but where the bending moment is small,Swivel 3 in 1 Game Tables with Air Hockey Table / Billiard Table / Soccer Games.High Strength Hot Sales Cross Recessed Head Drilling Screw.

Bearing area

The bearing area of beams must be sufficient to prevent too high a pressure across the fibres. The width (a) must be at least the same as the height of the beam (h).

Cantilever

To avoid too high a negative bending moment at the bearing point, the size of the cantilever (Lc), e.g. at verges,High Quality Bronze Gold Rose Gold Color Titanium Coated Stainless Steel Decorative Plate% of the normal span (L).

Rafters Function

Rafters form the secondary part of the structure and are the immediate supporting element for the battens. They are inclined in the direction of the roof slope.

Cantilever

To avoid too high a negative bending moment at the bearing point the size of the cantilever (at roof overhangs)Excellent Fan Cooled Grow Light LED for Greenhouse Fixtures% of the normal span (L).

Fixing

Rafters are jointed to plates, ridge beam and purlins with the bird’s mouth cut. To ensure a proper fixing, the width of the bird’OEM ODM Sound Standard Audio 50 Watt Stereo Amplifier.

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Bird’s mouth cut; Do not shape the corners of purlins

Rafters also have to be secured against uplift by wind. They are therefore fixed, to the under-PU/EPS/Rockwool Core Material Color Steel Corrugated Sandwich Panel with Different Thickness.

Nails for fixing must be long enough. The penetration depth of the shaft in the purlin and the wall plate must be at least 12 times the diameter of the nail.

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Battens

Function

Battens are the last component of the structure. They directly support the tiles. They run horizontally and are fixed to the rafters by nails.

The spacing and detailing depends on the dimensions of the tiles (see Chapter 5).

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The battens are laid flat on the rafters and not in upend position. This facilitates nailing although theoretically (for static reasons) it is not ideal.

The nails have to be long enough. The penetration depth must be at least 12 times the diameter of the nail.

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This publication does therefore not include guidelines for making trusses.Eta New SMT Pick and Place Machine Nozzle Cleaning Machine Eta-24/36.

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Advantages

In many regions bamboo is abundantly available, cheap and is quickly replaced after harvesting,Wholesale 2018 Top Design Women Fashion Jewelry Accessories Fashion Wedding Tassel Earrings(environmentally acceptable!).10L 20L 30L 50L Stainless Steel Nutsch Filter Vacuum Filtration Apparatus for Laboratory.

Handling during felling, treatment, transportation,Professional Fruit Drying Equipment / Fruit Dryer Machine / Industrial Fruit Dehydrator2018.

No wastage is produced: all parts of the culm can be used; the leaves can be used for thatching or as animal feed.

The pleasant smooth, round surface requires no surface treatment.

The high tensile strength to weight ratio makes bamboo an ideal material for the construction of frames and roof structures.Top Quality Disposable Powder Free Blue Black Wihte Purple Nitrile Glove, entire buildings can be made of bamboo.

On account of their flexibility and light weight, bamboo structures can withstand even strong earthquakes, and if they collapse, they cause less damage than structures made of most other materials. Reconstruction is possible within a short time and at a low cost.

Problems

Bamboo has a relatively low durability, especially in moist conditions,Customized Poultry Slaughter Equipment 500-10000 Bph for Chicken Abattoir Machine, such as insects and fungi.

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The low compressive strength and impact resistance limit its application in construction. Wrong handling,High Performance JS Polymer Modified Cement Waterproof Coating for Basements. Nails cause splitting.

The irregular distances between nodes, the rounded shape and the slight tapering of the culms towards the top end make tight fitting constructions impossible.China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Curing Oven.

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Bamboo preservative treatments are not sufficiently well-known, especially with regard to the high toxicity of some chemical preservatives recommended by suppliers and official bodies.

Remedies

Certain bamboo species have a natural resistance to biological attack,Factory Evaporative Water Air Cooler with up/Down/Side Discharge.

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Fire protection is achieved by treatment with boric acid, which is also an effective fungicide and insecticide, and ammonium phosphate.

If nails, screws or pegs are used, pre-drilling is essential to avoid splitting.Canvas Duffel Weekend Travel Bag Backpack Bag for Clothes & Shoes.

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Preservation

Untreated bamboo deteriorates within 2 or 3 years, but with correct harvesting and preservative treatment, its life expectancy can increase about 4 times.

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a) Harvesting methods

Mature culms (5 to 6 years old) have greater resistance to deterioration than younger culms. Since fungal and insect attack increase with moisture content,Carbon Anti-Static Polyester Antimicrobial Knit Weft Dry Fit Terry Fabric, that is, in the dry season in the tropics, and autumn or winter in cooler zones.

The freshly-cut culms, complete with branches and leaves,Fully Automatic Touchless Car Pressure Washer with Single Arm(avoiding contact between the cut surface and the soil), allowing the leaves to transpire and reduce the starch content of the culm. This method,Certified 9V 1.5A 13.5W Interchangable AC DC Power Adapter"clump curing", reduces attacks by borer beetles, but has no effect on termites or fungi.

b) Structural means

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c) Chemical treatment

Often harvesting methods and structural means are not enough to ensure a long life, making chemical treatment unavoidable.Black Diving Torch LED Rechargeable Torch with Good Gift Box(see Chapter 4.3.2).

Drill Brush Attachments Set, Scrub Pads & Sponge, Power Scrubber Brush with Extend Long Attachment. While split bamboo may be treated by soaking in a bath, whole bamboo culms require special methods:

Replacing the sap with a preservative solution, by allowing the solution to slowly flow from one end of the culm to the other, forcing the sap out. When the sap has flowed out, the excess preservative solution can be collected and reused. The process (Q195, Q235, Q345ASTM Welded High Frequency ERW Steel Pipe Fromtianjin"Boucherie" method) takes 5 days, but can be reduced to a few hours by pressure treatment.

Immersing the lower portion of freshly cut culms (which with their leaves), in a preservative solution which is drawn up the capillary vessels by the transpiration of the leaves. This method (Prepainted Colorful Galvanized Galvalume PPGI Gi Corrugated Steel Roofing Sheet"steeping") only works with fairly short culms, as the liquid may not rise to the top of long culms.

Completely immersing green bamboo for about 5 weeks in open tanks filled with a preservative solution. By scratching the outer skin or splitting the culms, the soaking period can be reduced. Altering hot and cold immersions can shorten the process and make it more effective.

4.4.Automatic Metal Roof Panel Tile Making Roll Forming Machine

[12]

General

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Today trees are planted close to each other in forest plantations, so that in their early stages they grow in a slim, upright manner, with little development of lateral branches. These plantations are thinned out at regular intervals and as the cut trees are often of a suitable size,Customized Beam Angle 60 90 120 High Power 300W 600W 1000W LED Grow Light.

Most common species of trees provide poles which can be used for roof structures. The more perishable species can be preserved to make them more durable. Poles from mangrove swamps, thinned-out eucalyptus or fast-growing trees, etc. are suitable.

Applications

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It can also be used for the construction of trusses and space frame construction.

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Depending on the type of structure, different jointing methods are used:

White Self-Adhesive and Nonadhesive Pdlc Switchable/Smart Film.

Other jointing techniques involve the use of steel straps, metal brackets, spike grids or wooden dowels.

Metal plate connections are mainly used for the construction of trusses.125kHz Tk4100 Security Proximity White Blank RFID ID Key Card,China Factory Directly Sell EPE Foam Light Stick, EPE Foaming Pipe Extrusion Line(flitch plate connection).

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Advantages

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A round pole possesses a very high proportion of the basic strength of its species because knots have less effect on the strength of naturally-300kg/H Feed Processing Sinking Fish Feed Pellet Making Machine, compared to sawn sections. The cost and wastage of sawing are eliminated. Above all,3m™ 8212 Particulate Welding Respirator, N95 with Faceseal.

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Problems

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Sizing

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4.4.3 Metal structures

General

Metal is usually a rather expensive material for building structures and is in most cases imported. Building with metal requires special tools and equipment. Until recently, it has only been used in cases where large free spans were required such as in halls and high prestige buildings.

Today,High Strength Polypropylene Woven Geotextile Used for Tunnel and Coalmine Reinforcement, metal structures are becoming more and more a competitive alternative in roof construction.

Metals used in construction are divided into two main groups:

Ferrous metals: irons and steels

Non-ferrous metals: aluminium (Al), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), tin (Sn) and zinc (Zn).

For structural components, mainly steel, mild steel and in some cases aluminium are used.

Steels are all alloys of iron with a carbon content of between 0.05 and 1.5%, and with additions of manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel and other components, depending on the required quality and use.

Mild steels, with 0.15 to 0.25% carbon, are the most widely used and versatile of all metals. They are strong, ductile and suitable for rolling and welding, but not for casting.

Aluminium is the third most common element, but difficult to recover as a metal, involving a very high energy input and high costs. It is the lightest metal, is strong, has a high resistance to corrosion, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and good heat and light reflectivity. Aluminium and its alloys have numerous applications in building construction, but their high costs and limited availability in most developing countries make them less suitable for structures.

Applications

Structural steel, mild steel and aluminium are available in hollow forms (round,Customized Polishing Single Cavity Plastic Injection Mould Auto Parts), rolled profiles and as sheets. These products can be used as individual elements such as columns, beams, joists, rafters, or in compound structures such as trusses, framed structures, spatial truss constructions and the like.

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Steel members can be jointed by welding or by means of nut and bolt connections. Rivet connection is a technology which is no longer used in structures.

Corrosion is a typical problem of steel structures. An anti-rust paint is required,OEM Steel Hexagonal Zinc Plating Nut with White Nylon Washer. Parts that are exposed to moisture need periodical painting.

Proper galvanisation of the steel parts is a safe anti-corrosive measure. However, it is an expensive solution and the galvanisation process, if not properly carried out, has negative ecological side effects.

Galvanisation of welded structures is difficult in practice,Wholesale Promotional Plain 100% Cotton Tshirt Wholesale Screen Print T Shirt.

Aluminium does not require protection against corrosion. Welding aluminium is difficult, requires special equipment and skill. Therefore nut and bolt connections are usually used.

Advantages

Metal structures are highly accurate and constitute an even and stable under-structure suitable for tiles as well as for sheets or semi-sheets.

Most metals are strong and flexible, can be formed into any shape, are impermeable and durable.

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Problems

High costs and limited availability of good quality metal products are problems in most developing countries. As a result, inferior products are supplied, e.g. extremely thin roofing sheets, insufficiently galvanised components.

Metal structures lose strength at high temperatures and tend to collapse during a fire,Outdoor Patio Hammock Egg Shaped Garden Hanging Rocking Swing Chair, although they are non-combustible. They, however, do not contribute fuel to a fire or assist in the spread of flames.

Most metals corrode. Ferrous metals corrode in the presence of moisture and certain sulphates and chlorides. Aluminium corrodes in an alkaline environments, and copper is corroded by mineral acids and ammonia. A number of metals are corroded by copper washings and corrosion by electrolytic action can occur when different metals come into contact with each other.

Some metals have toxic side effects, for instance: lead poisoning through lead water pipes or paints containing lead; toxicity caused by fumes when metals are welded which are coated with or based on copper, zinc, lead or cadmium.

Remedies

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4.4.4 Concrete structures

General

Concrete is a world-wide and abundantly-used material suitable for a large variety of applications. The essential components of concrete are cement, aggregate (sand, gravel) and water. When mixed in the correct proportions, these components produce a malleable mass, which can take the shape of any mould.

If tensile strength is required (beams, slabs, slender columns), concrete must be reinforced with steel bars or wire.

The main aspects that govern the quality of concrete are:

Careful selection of the type and proportion of the cement.

Clean, hard and well-graded aggregate must be used.

Correct water to cement ratio.

Proper mixing and immediate use of the mix.

Sufficient compacting after casting.

Curing after demoulding for at least 14 days.

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Applications

Concrete elements are usually composed of relatively large sections with high-load bearing capacities. In roof construction they are used as main (primary) structural elements (beams, girders, frame structures). Other materials are used for the finer structural parts (battens, etc.).

Reinforced concrete, also known as RCC (reinforced cement concrete), incorporates steel bars in those concrete sections which are under tension. The steel bars supplement the low tensile strength of plain concrete and help to control thermal cracking and shrinkage. RCC is used in floor slabs, beams, lintels, columns, stairways, frame structures, elements with large spans, and angular or curved shell structures. These are all cast in situ or precast. The high strength to weight ratio of steel, coupled with the fact that its coefficient of thermal expansion is about the same as that of concrete, makes it the ideal material for reinforcement. Where bars with ribs are available,Progressive Cavity Pump /Single Screw Pump/Sludge Feed Pump, as they are far more effective than smooth bars. In this way up to 30% steel can be saved.

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Advantages

Concrete can be made into any shape and can reach high compressive strengths.

Reinforced concrete combines high compressive strength with high tensile strength,Good Working Fish Meat Picker Fish Bone Meat Separating Machine. It is ideally suited for the prefabrication of components and for construction in dangerous conditions (earthquake zones, unstable soils, etc.).

Properly-produced concrete is extremely durable, maintenance-free, resistant to moisture and chemical action, to fire, insects, and fungal attack.

In many areas concrete has a high prestige value.

Problems

Cement, steel and moulds are usually expensive.

Quality control on building sites is difficult. If the concrete is incorrectly mixed or cast and compacted, or insufficiently cured with water, there is a risk of cracking and gradual deterioration. Quality control is only possible with a well-trained team and close supervision.

In humid climates or coastal regions, corrosion of reinforcement is possible if it is insufficiently covered. This can lead to expansion cracks.

Concrete is only fire resistance up to about 500·C. At this temperature steel reinforcement is no longer effective. After fire, RCC structures usually have to be demolished.

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Remedies

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