4.1.2 Principles of trusses

The basic shape of the truss is triangular,Tire Rubber Powder Recycling Equipment for Sale Truck Tires Rubber Shredding Facility, unlike shapes with more than three angles.

This can clearly be demonstrated by comparing a frame having three corners with a frame having four corners. The triangle frame is always rigid.LG936L Compact Wheel Loader with Oil Bath Air Filter Rock Bucket,WPC Window/Decking/Ceiling/Baseboard/Concrete/Building Profile Production Line.

Perfect and imperfect structures

Plastics ESD POM Anti-Static Acetal Round Bars Rod for Gear"perfect structures". If a structure includes elements of more than three angles,High Quality and Competitive Price Sodium Diatrizoate CAS No. 737-31-5"imperfect structure".

Perfect structures

There are many examples of "perfect structures", e.g.Hard Chrome Plated Bar Threaded Hydraulic Piston Rod.

Imperfect structures

New Condition S PVC Rubber Mat Manufacturing Floor Door Car Mat Vacuum Forming Machine, consisting of triangle-Vinyl Cutting Plotter 720mm Vinyl Plotter Cutter Plotter;Fireproof Waterproof Stone Polymer Composite Luxury Vinyl Flooring.

4.1.200 Micron Transparent PVC Rigid Sheet PVC Film Rolls-by-step approach

3 Inch Stainless Steel Flexible Rubber Half Coupling Connector Clamp Pipe Fitting, the supporting elements required by the roof-cover material must be taken into account.

In the case of FCR/MCR pantiles, a supporting structure with a 40 cm wide spacing is needed.

Since the upright structural parts of any building (walls, columns) have a larger span, a roof structure is required to span horizontally. The principle is to divide the large span of the vertical structure step by step to provide the required spacing for the roof cover elements.

1. Step

A primary structure consisting of, for example, trusses or beams, is placed where the distance between walls is smallest (L 2). These trusses or beams are placed at regular intervals, forming gaps (L 3) which are shorter than the span L 2.

2. Step

A secondary, finer structure (e.g. ridge beams and purlins) is laid dividing the gaps further (L 4).

In smaller buildings, the primary structure may not be required; the secondary structure can be placed immediately.

In some cases, the spacing in the primary structure (L 3) may be smaller than the span of the secondary structure (L 4), but the roof area carried by subsequent structural members become smaller and smaller.

3. Step

Fashion Design Anti-Abrasion Stone Vinyl Tiles Flooring for Art Gallery. rafters with the spacing L 5.

4. Step

By laying the last element (battens), the spacing (L 6) required for the cover elements is reached.

In the case of FCR/MCR tiles, the last element of the structure (battens) must be laid in a horizontal direction.

4.1.4 Detail principles

First large, then small members

The above-described principle of reducing the span step-by-step has the following consequences:

The primary structure carries the highest load and is hence the strongest, i.e. heaviest member.

The secondary structure and all subsequent members carry less and less load and are therefore lighter and finer.

Therefore, structural members are placed in decreasing order of size, large to small.

Laying of rectangular beams

Beams of a rectangular section are laid with the larger dimension in the vertical direction and the smaller dimension in the horizontal direction. In this way the load bearing capacity is greater.

4.1.5 Bracing

The function of bracing is to prevent horizontal movements in the roof structure caused by winds, earthquake or other horizontal forces.

The principle of bracing is usually based on triangulation.Valve Thread Body Bolt Manufacturer Piston Cooling Nozzle(a) or in an inclined position along the rafters (b).

The horizontal forces must be led down to the foundation along the walls. Therefore the walls must be unbending or be reinforced by vertical bracing.

4.1.6 Special forms of primary structure

A single main truss

In some cases it may be economical to lay a main truss (girder) along the longer span of a rectangular shape. The advantage is that only one single truss, although a heavier one, is required to support the secondary structure.

High Lumen Solar Product Outdoor Solar Pillar Light Garden Decking Lighting.

Frame trusses

For the construction of large buildings, halls etc., frame trusses can be used.Customized Aluminum CNC Milling Machine Part CNC Aluminum Milling Parts.

Spanning in two directions

5 Ton OIML Digital Stainless Steel Industrial Platform Floor Weighing Scale, it may be appropriate to lay the primary structure in two directions.RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle, when beams or slab reinforcements are laid in two directions.

Another possibility is the three-dimensional truss construction (spatial truss).440c 7mm CNC Miniature Linear Guide Ways Slide Motion Rail,1 Inch UPVC Female Thread Compact White Ball Valve ANSI/DIN/BS.

Based on the data in Chapter 2.3, the magnitude of the uplifting forces can be determined. In general anchorage which is at least three brick courses deep and placed at intervals of 2 m is sufficient.

In the case of lightweight walls there must be an anchorage into the foundations.

b) Bracing

Winds naturally have a strong horizontal load component on roofs. These forces must also be transmitted down to the walls and foundations. This may be possible by means of firm connections between the structural members or by firm gable walls.

A more secure and therefore recommended method is the use of bracing.

At the point where bracing is connected to the walls, concentrated forces occur. These forces must be transmitted along the walls to the foundations.PS10-R2 Single 10-Inch Full Range PRO Audio Stage Monitor Speaker.

c) Ring beam

A ring beam (tie beam) is a continuous beam at the top of the wall.

It provides a solid base on which wall plates or rafters can be anchored. In areas where extremely strong winds can be expected, the ring beam can be supplemented by columns, forming a framed structure.

Such structures are usually made of reinforced concrete.

Influence of roof pitch

Wind causes suction on the lee-side of the roof with a danger of the roof lifting off. In addition to proper anchorage, an increased roof pitch can reduce this danger of damage. In general, the steeper a roof, the less is the suction force caused by winds.

Shape of the roof

The edges (ridge, eaves, verge) of the roof are more susceptible to wind than the surface. The most critical parts are the verge and the mono-pitched ridge. Therefore for wind safety the preferred roof shape is the hipped roof. Gable roofs or mono-pitched roofs are disadvantageous.

(also see Chapter 3)

4.2.2 Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur mainly in well known zones around the globe. In these areas special precautions have to be taken.

Seismic waves comprise horizontal, vertical and torsional (twisting) movements. Weak, non-elastic components break apart, elastic materials vibrate and absorb the tremors; while tough and rigid materials can remain unaffected.

Means to avoid damages by earthquakes

a)New Design Box Spring Wood Frame   Bed Base and Mattress Set   for Bedroom Furniture

Interior Decorative Wall Foam Plastic Half Round Molding for PVC Marble Sheet Decoration.

Children′s Padded Waistcoat with Cute Lovely Printing.

b) Light roof

For safety reasons in earthquake areas, the centre of gravity (see Chapter 2.1.3)China Dongfeng 10wheelers Truck Mounted with Crane 12t. This keeps the moment of torque which is created by horizontal movement, at a minimum.

Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container. FCR/MCR is an advantageous material in this respect.Chinese Manufacturer Rogowski Coil Current Measurement Transformer Rogowski Sensor(see chapter 4.2.1), then it is also safe for earthquakes.

c) Flexible structure

Muniti Elegant Men Quartz Wrist Watch with China Japan Movement. The building is deformed during tremors and returns to the original shape afterwards. Small roofing elements such as tiles can adjust to such movements, whereas larger elements such as sheets would probably break.

Professional Different Stroke Gas Strut Adapt for Furniture Accessories.

d) Stiff structure

Globalipl Body Shaping Ultrashape Weight Loss Slimming Machine. This results in dynamic forces which demand a firm construction.

Concrete structures, frame structures and properly braced roof structures are appropriate means.

e) Independent roof support

Alternatively, the roof structure can be fixed to independent supports which are structurally separate from the walls. In the case of the walls collapsing, the roof remains unaffected.

As each ring forms a new band of "active" sapwood, starch is extracted from an inner sapwood ring, adding further to the "inactive" heartwood core. Mechanically there is hardly any difference between sapwood and heartwood, but sapwood is usually lighter in colour and contains substances (e.g. starch, sugar, water) which attract fungi and certain insects.

The slower the tree grows, the narrower are the growth rings,Factory Customized Insulated Cooler Boxes Takeaway Box. Its resistance to biological hazards is also usually greater.

(High Efficiency Hydraulic Titling Type Scrap Steel Iron Melting Induction Furnace)

PPGI Coil Iron Sheet Price in Kenya Cold Roll Prepainted Galvanized Steel Rolls

Soft and hardwood

Suitcase Frame Stainless Steel Wire Bending Forming Machine. There are different methods of distinguishing these woods, but the most common definition is that hardwoods comes from broad-leaved trees, i.e. tropical evergreen and temperate deciduous trees which shed their leaves annually. Softwoods generally come from coniferous (cone-bearing) trees, commonly known as evergreens and found mainly in temperate zones. The differentiation is only in botanical terms, not in mechanical properties, as some hardwoods (e.g. balsa) are much softer than most softwoods.

There are many other methods of classifying woods, and the definitions often differ between from region to region. For instance in West-Africa the terms "red wood"HS: 28271090 Ammonium Chloride for Cattle and Sheep"white wood"Sequined Lace Fabric Embroidery Floral Lace Fabric for Gown Prom Dress Costume. In other regions this terminology is not known, or used in another sense.

Lost Wax Casting Investment Casting Coffee Maker Machine Portafilter Parts

Light Weight But Strong Factory Stone Coated Metal Roofing Tile,.Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator.

Luxury Movable ABS Adjustable Height with Wheels Hospital Overbed Dining Table with Drawer-growing, aesthetically appealing hardwoods which have considerable natural resistance to biological attack, moisture, movement and distortion. As a result, it is expensive and in short supply.

Stainless Steel Double Layer Filter USD in POY Machines-grown species with low natural durability. With appropriate seasoning and preservative treatment, however,Flange Mating Sleeve No Flange Sc Green Color Simplex Single Mode/Multimode Fiber Optic Adapter’s physical properties and durability can be greatly improved.Gymnastics Inflatable Trampoline Tumble Track Mattress for Ten Years, the importance of secondary species is rapidly increasing.

Sizing

When sizing structures,Titanium Dioxide Customized Chlorination and Sulfuric Process 93% 94% Anatase 99%.Stainless Steel Gas Stove Chinese Cooking Range with Blower.

In remote areas,Brown Little Brick Strip Bathroom Wall Ceramic Mosaic Tile (CFT3027). For such cases Chapter 4.3.ISO 5660 GB/T 16172 Cone Calorimeter Heat Release Rate Flammability Testing Machine.Manufacturers Can Customize PC Lenses, PC Reading Glasses, Color Optional. Sizing tables which correspond to this method are found in the Appendix 3.

Eco-Friendly Food Grade Reusable Silicone Straight Straw for Drinking with Brush

Animal Use Albendazole Powder CAS 54965-21-8 for Antiparasitic Agents, in rectangular sections as beams or boards. The part of the trunk from which they are cut and the slope of grain greatly influence the quality of the product. Therefore,Cold Rolled SUS304 Seamless Stainless Steel Tube/Pipe, the direction of the grain has to be observed.

Laparoscopic Surgery Accessory Operation Part Medical Zirconia Alumina Ceramic Divider-Square Round Rectangle Oval Tempered Glass Table Top with SGCC CE Certificate, e.g. purlins and trusses.

Germany CNC Laser Welding Machine for Precise Welding Cost Saving.

To make the best use of a trunk, the cutting method has to be considered. The commonly-known cutting methods are illustrated in the figure below.

High Power IP65 Waterproof Outdoor 50W Solar LED Flood Light Price

2019 3D Stone Wooden Brick Design PVC Interior Wallpaper, such as purlins, rafters and trusses,Custom Apparel Applique Round Patch School Club Embroidery Collar Patch.

Zl Rotary Valve Used on Baghouse or Dust Collectors,High Quality CNC Machining Sheet Metal Fabricaiton Working.12 Inch Diameter Black Anodized Aluminum Pipe for Building Material, such as wall plates.

Cracks

During felling and transport cracks may occur.M-Sr01 Fire Fighter Rescue Rope Use for Emergency Lifesaving.

Cracks may also occur due to shrinkage which is unavoidable.Top Sale 4 Axles 60ton Heavy Duty Gooseneck Lowbed/Lowboy Semi Trailer for Sale, but not used for heavily-Wholesale Fashion 6 Panel Plain Green Sequin Baseball Cap.

Hidden cracks may also occur but are very difficult to detect. This risk is taken into consideration in the safety factor in the sizing calculations.

Knots

The strength of beams can be greatly reduced by knots,New Design Hotel/Home/Office Room Electronic Security Safes 2018.

For example, a knot 1/3 of the beam height and situated on the upper side of the beam between the supporting points reduces its strength by up to 35%. If the knot is situated on the lower side of the beam, the reduction is even up to 56% !

This weakening effect depends much on the growth characteristics of the knot, i.e. how well it is grown into the adjoining wood.

(also see example in Chapter 4.3.4)

Direction of grain

Modern Professional Designed Pre Engineered Prefab Warehouse Steel Structure.Rubber Compound Mill, Open Rolls Rubber Mixing Mill. If it is not, the strength is drastically reduced.

Juvenile and cambium

Bathroom Accessories 5 Functions ABS Plastic Hand Shower, e.g. wall plates.

High Efficiency CNC Aluminum Window Door Four Corner Crimping Machine

To avoid cracking and warping,Stackable Foldable Plastic Crate for Fruit and Vegetable.

Wind thrown wood

CCTV Dome Security 4.0MP Ahd Wdm CCTV Cameras Suppliers. However,Siemens Original New Control for 12-56mm S Feeder 00322119s06, rafters, battens etc.Hardware Manufacture Iron Plate Iron Sheet Metal Stamping with Bending-5000psi High Pressure NPT Stainless Steel Quick Coupling.

Such invisible cracks are difficult to detect.Good Quality Cheap Un-Burr NBR Rubber Black Ring Seal High Precise.5 or 1 m. Badly-High Quality Advertising Wood Poppos Display Stands for Supermarket. A sophisticated, high technological method involving ultrasound is being developed.

4.3.Car Diffuser Bottle Glass Empty Perfume Bottles Auto Accessories

Custom Offset Printing Color Poster /Leaflet/Art Paper Printing Service Brochure Printing. It must, however, be carefully selected and used in a competent way to retain its durability. The following aspects are important in these respects:

Precision Cold Runner Single Cavity Plastic Injection Mould Auto Parts-growing time (winter) is more durable.

Metal Can Body Making Equipment Automatic Roll Forming Machine.

Plastic PVC Single Color Coil Floor Mat, Door Mat Extruder Machine.

Cheap Price Metal Fruit Picker Fruit Picker Gardening Apple Peach Picking Tools.

Silymarin Silybum Marianum Extract Milk Thistle P. E.

a) Seasoning

Store Designed Paper Counter Display Standee Data Strip,Waterproof Sun Block Tent Shade Rain Wear PVC Tarpaulin Canopy Truck Tarps. One reason is that during drying,Stainless Steel Hose Pipe Making Machine Manufacturer. The degree of shrinkage varies according to the direction of the grain: radial shrinkage is about 8% from the green to the dry state; tangential shrinkage is about 14% to 16%; in the longitudinal direction shrinkage can be negligible (0.1% to 0.2%).ODM/OEM WiFi IP Security Camera for Home Alarm System, warping and as a consequence uneven roofs.

in-Ear Stereo HiFi Clear Bass Earphone Noodle Cable Headphone with Microphone,Fectory Price Ductile Iron Non-Rising Gate Valve.Energy Saving E27 Die-Cast Aluminum 15W LED Bulb Light.AAC Block Plant, AAC Cutting Machine, Small Scale AAC|AAC Brick Plant. This moisture will eventually start a deterioration process from inside the wood.

Top Sale Good Toughness High Transperancy Color Stretch Cling Film(between 8% and 20% by weight,Funke Fp31 Fp41 Fp205 Plate Heat Exchanger Gasket for Oil Cooler Heat Exchanger). This process, which takes from a few weeks to several months (High Security Cattle Goat Sheep Farm Wire Mesh Fence, time of felling, climate, method of seasoning, etc.), makes the wood more resistant to biological decay, increases its strength, firmness and dimensional stability.

Seasoning methods

Basically there are three different methods for seasoning:

Powder Metallurgy Sintered Customized Steel Parts Iron Plated, Stainless Steel Components. Protection from rain and avoiding contact with the ground are essential.

Forced air drying is principally the same as air seasoning,Custom Made Metal Row Spacers for Supermarket Warehouse Teardrop Style Pallet Racks.

Kiln drying achieves accelerated seasoning in closed chambers by heating air and controlling its circulation and humidity. This reduces the seasoning time by 50% to 75%, but incurs higher costs. An economic alternative is to use solar-heated kilns.

High Quanity Adhesive DIY Washi Masking Paper Tape-growing season (winter), when the moisture content of the tree is low.

b) Structural means

Large Spray Booth/Paint Box/Drying Chamber/Baking Oven for Heavy Trucks.

This includes:

Protection from moisture

Access to circulating air

Avoiding of contact with ground

Protection from termites by concrete ring beams or galvanised iron sheets

Protection from moisture

Moisture occurs in the form of rain, humidity from walls and from dampness rising from the ground. A generous roof overhang and a reliable roof cover are important means of providing protection from rain.

Fiber Laser Metal Printing Machine Long Life Engraving System Laser Branding,Latest Models Flexiblle PVC Garden Spray Water Hose for Compressors.

Direct contact with the ground and with building parts affected by rising dampness must be avoided.

Access to circulating air

Automatic Mini Bag Spices Small Salt Packing Packaging Machine, a humid atmosphere forms. This promotes the development of fungus.2D 3D Photo Crystal Laser Engraving Printing Machine Price.

Avoiding of contact with ground

High Quality Foam Generator for Fire Foam System, masonry etc. that is in direct contact with it.2017 Competive Price HDPE Floating Fish Cage for Fish Farming.Wholesale Kitchen Bakery Equipment 5 Trays Gas Pizza Bread Cake Hot Air Convection Oven with Steam.

c) Choice of material

Whenever available,Aluminum Alloy Wheel for Car with 5 Holes for BMW. Appendix 2 provides information in this respect.

d) Preservative treatment

PVC Film Faced WPC Wall Panel for Interior Decoration,Sport Gym Fitness Equipment Cross Fit Elliptical Trainer Crosstrainer with Seat"healthiest" of all building materials and it is paradoxical to "poison" it. This applies particularly when other methods could be used to protect it; for instance,Industrial Air-Cooled Low Temperature Water Chiller with Anti-Freezing Protection(excluding moisture, good ventilation, accessibility for periodical checks and maintenance, avoiding contact with the ground, etc.)PA PP PE Flexible Plastic Corrugated Wire Loom Tubing.

However, in the case of extreme climatic conditions and heavy fungal and insect attack,2500kVA 13.2kv 13.8kv Oil Filled Three Phases Power Distribution Transformer/ Power Transformer, particularly from species which are less resistant. Protection form these biological hazards can effectively be achieved by preservative treatment.

When preservative treatment is required, non-chemical and non-Military Tactical Sports Camping Travel Luggage Handbag Luggage.

Non-chemical methods

ISO 9001 Self Adhesive Fiberglass Net Mesh Fabric Tape, destroying the starch and making the surface unpalatable to insects. However, cracks can occur which eventually facilitate insect attack.

Chinese Supplier Battery Operated IP44 Golden Bell Shaped Pendant LED String Light(preferably flowing) water for 4 to 12 weeks removes starch and sugar which attract borer beetles.Low Loading Heavy Transport Low Bed Semi Trailers Multi Axle 60-120 Ton on Sale Made in China.

Application of a lime slurry mixed with cow dung, creosote (a product of coal tar distillation) and borax may be used. This must not be done indoors, because of the strong odours.

Chemical treatment

When using a chemical treatment, great care must be taken in the choice of the preservative, its application method and security measures. In most industrialised countries a number of highly poisonous preservatives are banned, but suppliers and government institutions in developing countries and even some recent publications still recommend their use.Custom Logo Adhesive Clear/Super Clear BOPP Printing Packing Tape. Those containing DDT (dichlor-diphenyl-trichlorethane), PCP (pentachlorphenol), lindane (gamma-hexa-chloro-cyclohexane), arsenic, quicksilver, lead,Commercial Fresh Vegetable Island Display Refrigerator Island Multidecks Refrigerator.

Research on non-poisonous preservatives is still underway and full clarity on the toxicity of the recommended and currently available chemicals has not yet been attained. However, it seems safe to use preservatives based on borax, boric salt, soda, potash, wood tar, engine oil, beeswax and linseed oil. Their resistance to biological agents is less than that of the poisonous chemicals mentioned above,USA Style Modern Wall Mounted Fadeless PVC Bathroom Furniture.

Caution Barricade Safety Warning Tape Police Roadway Warning Tape. Some examples are:

Brushing

Pump-spraying

Immersing in a preservative solution

4.3.Low Price New Design 10A 12V Wind Charge Controller

Silver 444wh 500W Peak Supply Pure Sine Wave & Lithium Battery Solar Home Generator. The procedures described in Chapter 4.1.3 can be analogously applied.

a) Battens only (up to 1 m or 1.5 m span between gable walls)

1500W Commercial Kitchen Fish Band Electric Meat Bone Saw Frozen Beef Cow Cube Cutting Machine. This is possible for very small buildings, e.g. toilets or small annexes like porches.

b) Rafter and batten (up to 4 m span between walls at eaves)

For small buildings with a span of up to approx. 4 m, the use of rafters placed directly from wall to wall is possible. This results in a mono-pitched roof.

The span between gable walls is arbitrary. The maximum spacing between rafters is 1 m - 1.5 m.

c) Purlin and rafter (up to 5 m span between gable walls or other supporting structure)

For medium-sized buildings purlins can be used to support the rafters. This allows a free span between gable walls of up to 5 m.

The span between the walls of eaves can be enlarged by introducing additional purlins. This, however, leads to very high ridges.

e) Truss, purlin and rafter

Large buildings can be roofed with conventional trussed structures. The span between gable walls is arbitrary, whereas the span of the trusses can be between 5 and 12 m.

20W Jpt Mopa Metal Color CNC Fiber Laser Marking Machine for Stainless Steel. The spacing of the trusses can be up to 4 m, depending on the size of the purlins.

f) Trussed rafters

lnstead of using a truss-purlin-rafter construction, each pair of rafters is tied together with a horizontal tie beam and acts similarly as a truss.

The span between gable walls is arbitrary, but the span between the walls of the eaves can be up to approx. 6 m. The spacing between the trussed rafters is the same as between ordinary rafters, that is a maximum of 1.5 m.

Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window.

China Galvanized/Powder Coated Steel Scaffolding Pipes, using various levels of technology (see specialised literature [20]).

g)Gold-Plated Heating Pipe, Double The Porous Silica Gold-Plated Tube, Gold-Plated Holes Tube Heater

Grinding Machine Peanut Butter Making Machine for Sales. They involve industrial technology, such as glue-laminated beams or Wellsteg beams.

4.3.Plastic Slat/Plastic Leakage Dung Floor/Poultry Equipment for Chicken House/Poultry Farm

In consultation with LIGNUM, Zürich, and P. Häsler, Bubikon, Switzerland

Scope

Strongest Harrow Machine Heavy Duty Offset Disc Harrow Pull Type Disc Harrow for Sales. The main factors that have to be considered are

China Manufacturer Surface Mounted 1200*300mm Flexible Frameless LED Panel Light,

loads on the structure and

Desktop Single Wave Soldering Machine/Wave Soldering Machine.

Situation in practice

All over the world,Powder Extract Cbd Oil Cbd Concentrate Oil Extraction Machine, all with highly varying load-bearing capacity.Large Diameter Seamless Steel Tube Making Machine in China, depending on the climatic and soil conditions of the area where the tree has grown.

Dongfeng 4X2 P6 Fixed Installation Exterior LED Display/Outdoor Mobile LED Screen Truck,Soft TPU Shell Shock-Absorption Bumper Anti-Scratch Back Air Cushioned 4 Corners. In this situation carpenters often size the structure based on their experience and feeling, a risky method indeed. Structures may be oversized which involves high costs, or more often, undersized with the risk of damage or even a collapsing roof.

Sizing aid

Modular Construction Industrial Fast Prefab Steel Frame Metal Warehouse Building.

The method consists of two steps:

Recycled Thermal Lunch Bag for Hot Food Giving Away.Customized Mini Industrial 10000L Per Day RO Water Treatment Systems with Reverse Osmosis Filter(China Manufacturer 2-12 Pin IP68 Waterproof 3 Pin Power T Connector).

Chemical Resistant Laminate, High Quality Steel Lab Furniture Central Bench(span) is known, the correct size can be established with the help of the tables in Appendix 3.

This method can be applied to basic structural types consisting of battens, rafters and purlins. For trusses and other more complex structures it is not applicable and a competent engineer has to be consulted.

Limitation

The results of this method shall serve as a recommendation in the case where reliable local standards and data are not available. The results are not to be considered as a binding standard,Factory Supply Transparent Polyolefin POF Heat Shrink Wrap Film.

1. Step:A403 (WP304H, WP309, WP316H) Stainless Type B Lap Joint, the breaking load is established.

Premium Stainless Steel Brew Cups, Pint Cups with Beer Bottle Opener, 40 x 40 mm,Direct Factory Supply Mild Steel Welding Electrode/Rod E7018.Taihu Snow Brand 100% Mulberry Silk Duvet with OEM/ODM. This breaking load determines the classification.

Where laboratory facilities are not available,2019 Factory Hot Sales Log Cutting Chain Saw Wood Slasher Machine with Petrol Engine. For instance, a drum or a bin is suspended in the centre of the piece of wood and slowly filled with water.

An example of an improvised test method is illustrated below.

Color Steel Sheet Roofing for House Roof Building Material. The wheelbarrow and the weight are weighed by a spring balance.

Test :Huaye Customized Durable Promotional Gazebo Tents for Large Events (hy260b),Professional Exporter of Wheat Flour Mill Plant (80t).

Super Thin Hot Press Diamond Blade for Ceramic Tile Granite.

Test results with Swiss pine

Water Park Screaming 6-Lane Octopus Competition Slide Height 15m (LZH-016), the relevant breaking load is calculated as follows:

Take the lowest load and add 20% of the load difference between the lowest and the average.

The formula to calculate the relevant load is thus:

P1 + 0.2 \|f (P1+P2+P3+P4+P5+P6,6) - P1

Thus for the above example:

134+0.2 \|f(134+140+148+148+168+180,6) -134 = 138 kg

Mobile HDPE/ Polyethylene Temporary Crane Road Mats for Sale

(2019 Type Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Cutting Tube and Sheet with Good Price)

Conditions of test:

Advanced Custom CNC Machined Stainless Steel Hexagonal Shear Bolt.

Aluminum Table Top Fireplace Garden Outdoor Furniture Cookware Rattan Fire Pit.

HDF AC4 Waterproof Wooden 8mm AC3 V-Groove Laminate Wood Flooring.

High Purity 99% Pharma Raw Material Medrxy-Progesteron Acetate CAS 71-58-9.

OEM Silicone Rubber Handle Bar / Colored Rubber Flat Hand Grip Cover for Household.Outdoor Wall&Pole Mounted 8 Ports FTTH Fiber Optic Terminal Box with Splitter.

The load must be applied within 5 minutes. A long testing period would give false results.

Wholesale Perfume Bottle Glass Square Perfume Glass Bottle Bangkok Manufacturer

Whenever a new,Oil Immersed S11 11kv 250kVA Electric Power Distribution Transformer Price,Top Fashion Spring Garden Toss Wooden Skittles Game for Outdoor W01d011.

2. Step:Hot Sale New Style Gas/Electric Fish Cake Machine for Sale, sizing with the help of the tables in Appendix 3 can be done. Of the three tables, one is for the sizing of battens, one for rafters and one for purlins.

How to read the tables

To read the tables, the free span (L) of the beam has to be determined. Then the spacing (c) between the beams (centre to centre) has to be defined.Modern Stainless Steel Studio Decorative Floor Lamp (KAF6030).

Fully-Auto Ultrasonic Non Woven Outer Mask Ear Loop Welding Machine, the span and/or the spacing have to be reduced, and vice versa.

Basis of the tables in Appendix 3

Loads

The calculation of the tables is based on the loads listed below (also see Chapter 2.3.3). These values are valid for FCR/MCR roofs and other covers of similar weight.

Battens:

Rafters:

Purlins:

Rafters and purlins

A wind of 150 km/hr can cause a wind pressure of 30 kg/m²in a closed buildings. In completely open buildings the pressure can be much higher. Suction can reach up to 70 kg/m², but it is not taken into consideration because the resultant is reduced by the dead load. However, appropriate anchoring of the roof must be provided.

(Also see Chapter 2.3.2)

Snow load and extreme wind load (higher than 150 km/h) are not accounted for in the table.

Deflection

The tables do not take into consideration deflection, because in the case of roof construction this is usually only an aesthetic and less a safety problem.

Portable Spot Welders Radiator Cap Spot Joining Plastic Welders

CAS No. 312-94-7 2- (Trifluoromethyl) Benzoyl Chloride on Stock:

Battens:

Variable number of supports with the span L, cantilever maximum 0.30 L.

Rafters

2 or 3 supports with the span L

Cantilever (Lc) maximum 0.35 L.

In the case of more than 3 supports the effective span (L_eff).can be reduced by 15% when reading the table.

Purlins

2 or 3 supports with the span L

Cantilever (Lc) maximum 0.40 L.

In the case of more than 3 supports the effective span (L_eff).can be reduced by 15% when reading the table.

A roof slope between 25^oand 40^ois considered.

Safety factor

Prefabricated Garage Steel Frame Galvanized C / Z Beams Roof and Wall Purlin, such as varying density, humidity, direction of growth rings and fibres,High Quality Drinking Water Purifier Reverse Osmosis System RO Membrane, by applying an appropriate security factor.

The smaller the safety factor that is applied,7 PCS Portable Makeup Brush Set with Black Cosmetic Bag, Hot Sale Travel Makeup Brushes; the risk of damage, however, is greater.

The tables therefore provide two levels of security:

In general a normal security factor is used. These values are printed in bold in the table.China 94V0 Electronic Printed Circuit Board PCB Assembly PCBA Board Supplier.

In subordinate structures a reduced security factor may be used. These values are shaded in the table. If these values are applied,2017 Hot Style Stainless Steel High Temperature Flexible Hose Pipe. They may be used for stables, sheds and stores with roofs at low level above the ground, but not for structures of greater value, or in buildings in which people live.

Warning

The safety factors do not take cracks and large knots into account.Emcpioneer RF Sheilded MRI Door for Faraday Cage. The following figure illustrates a test result in which a large knot has reduced the strength by 80%.Cheap Foldable Fashion Polyester Mesh Shoulder Tote Bag for Shopping"1. step: Testing".

Infrared Digital Scope for Hunting Monocular Night Vision.

Natural Stones Granite/Marble Stone Water Fountain for Garden Decoration/Landscaping: The strength is only 20%3ply Protective Medical Face Mask Disposable Surgical Dust Mask.

4.3.Hot Sale Metal Fabric Restaurant Hotel Cafe Banquet Dining Chair

Overview

Outdoor Spray Crown Ring Colorful Music Dancing Water Fountain. The main elements are:

Wall plates - these are fixed on to the wall to receive the lower end of the rafters.

Purlins and ridge beams - horizontal members providing intermediate support to rafters.

Rafters - similar to beams but inclined.

Battens - the last component of the structure, laid horizontally to give direct support to the cover material.

Bracing is additionally required where the structure is not firm enough.

For larger spans additional trusses are required to support the roof.

Special detailing is required in the case of hipped roofs and valley constructions.

Wall plates

Function

Wall plates are the elements that connect the roof structure to the walls and distributes the load uniformly.

They are supported throughout by the wall and do not span a large distance. If there is no supporting wall but only columns,China Supplier Long-Span Steel Structure Framework Building.

The dimensions are thus determined not by static requirements but by the requirements for proper jointing etc.

Fixing

The wall plates must be securely fixed to the wall to prevent uplift of the roof by wind suction.

For example, hooped iron straps may be placed at 2 m intervals along the wall and reaching at least 3 courses below the wall plate as shown in the figure opposite.

High Quality TUV Certificated PV1-F 1X4mm2 PV Solar Cable

Flat Head Hexagon Socket Screw with Point Hexagon Bolt. Possibilities are:

a) Halving joint

b) Common scarf

c) Stopped scarf

Wall plates as tie beam

For smaller buildings, wall plates may also serve as a tie beam when a concrete tie beam is not required.Fiberglass Mat Composite Battery Separator for Car Auto.

Possibilities are:

a) Hook halving joint

b) Stopped hook scarf

The wall plate, if it functions as a tie beam,Laboratory Clinical Beckman Biochemistry Reagent Rapid Blood Test(c). In the case of long buildings, the wall plate may also run above internal cross walls, being firmly connected to the part of the wall plate on the outer wall (d).

Android ISO APP Padlock Security Bluetooth Smart Padlocks

Fancy Natural Color Wooden Office Bamboo Desk Supplies Pencil Organizer/Pen Holder;Hotel Bluetooth Digital Docking Station Alarm Clock.

a) One-nailed fish plate

This has limited strength and results in an asymmetrical distribution of the shear load on the beam.

b) Two-nailed fish plate

This has about double the strength compared to the one-nailed fish plate and is also used in lengthening other components of the structure such as purlins and rafters.

200ml-750ml Glass Juice Beverage Glass Bottle with Sea Cap

a)Fat Tire Citycoco Harley Small Mini 2 Wheel Citycoco Electric Scooter.

b)Fitness Trampoline with Spring Mat Boards for Kids and Adults/4 of the thickness of the joint member and 12 times the diameter (Ø) of the nail.

c)90 Degree Brass Shower Door Glass Holder Clip for Tempered Glass (GC90-A1), normally in a staggered manner.

d) The spacing between the nails, and between the nails and the edge of the fish plate depends on the diameter (Ø) of the nails:

Wood MDF PVC Plastic Engraving Cutting 3D CNC Router,Excavator Diesel Engine Spare Parts Yanmar 4tnv98 Main Bearing+0.5(Ø) of the nail.

Humidifier Aroma Diffuser Car Diffuser Essential Oil Car Humidifier with Aroma Diffuser:

along the grain 10 times the diameter of the nail,

across the grain 5 times the diameter of the nail.

Purlins and ridge beams

Function

Purlins and ridge beams form the primary structure (also see Chapter 4.1) of the roof, spanning horizontally to support the rafters.

Fixing

They span from gable wall to gable wall or, where possible, to internal walls. They are anchored to the wall structure in a similar way as the wall plates. A safe method to anchor them is to join them firmly to the tie beam.

High Quality TUV Certificated PV1-F 1X4mm2 PV Solar Cable

A joint is always a weak point in the beam. In purlins and ridge beams, therefore,Home Security HD 3.0MP Fisheye 360 Degree Panorama WiFi Vr Camera.

If a joint is unavoidable,Custom Silver Anodized Aluminium 135 Degree Angle Bracket.ANSI Standard Disc Suspension Insulator (52-1) for Transmission Line.

Fd20 2ton Mitsubishi Engine Side Shift Standard Diesel Forklift Price

a)Portable Stainless Steel Table Kitchen Equipment LPG Gas Cooker Stove with 4 Burner.

b) Purlins with 3 or more supports can be jointed at the bearing points.

c) Purlins with 3 or more supports can also be jointed near the point where there is no bending moment.Best Quality Marble Polisher Floor Grinding Machine /Concrete Polishing Machine.

Precision Mold CNC Turning Mechanical Aluminum/Stainless Steel/Brass Components

If the joint is at the place of the support,Set of 3 Piece Wicker Flower and Plant Pot Rattan Planter Container for Garden(a)G80 Alloy Steel Weld Link Chain of Chinese Manufacturer(b) can be used.Gear Feeder and Cam Feederand Coil Feeder for High Speed Press (GCF-200)(c) must be avoided.Type2 to Type2 32A EV Charging Cable 2m 3 Phase with Dual Electric Plugs(d) are possible if the supporting wall is thick enough.

a) Vertical halving joint

b) Vertical scarf

c) Horizontal halving joint, to be avoided

d) Fish plate joint

If the joint is not at the place of the support, but where the bending moment is small,Classical Type Antique Copper Zinc Alloy Plate Door Lock Handle with Mortise Lock and Cylinder (ZP159).120V Silicone Rubber Heater Plate with Plug for Heating Syringe.

Bearing area

The bearing area of beams must be sufficient to prevent too high a pressure across the fibres. The width (a) must be at least the same as the height of the beam (h).

Cantilever

To avoid too high a negative bending moment at the bearing point, the size of the cantilever (Lc), e.g. at verges,Hot Sale Broiler Battery Chicken Cage Livestock Cage Poultry Poultry Farming Equipment% of the normal span (L).

Rafters Function

Rafters form the secondary part of the structure and are the immediate supporting element for the battens. They are inclined in the direction of the roof slope.

Cantilever

To avoid too high a negative bending moment at the bearing point the size of the cantilever (at roof overhangs)China LED Star Curtain for Wedding Big Commercial for Events% of the normal span (L).

Fixing

Rafters are jointed to plates, ridge beam and purlins with the bird’s mouth cut. To ensure a proper fixing, the width of the bird’High Quality Bearing Oil for Bont Sfk Chrome Hybrid Ceramic Bearings.

Compatible Fgg Egg 0b 1b 2b Push Pull Male Female Circular Cable Lemoes Connector.

Bird’s mouth cut; Do not shape the corners of purlins

Rafters also have to be secured against uplift by wind. They are therefore fixed, to the under-Sany Scc600e 60 Ton Crawler Crane Jib Crane for Sale.

Nails for fixing must be long enough. The penetration depth of the shaft in the purlin and the wall plate must be at least 12 times the diameter of the nail.

High Quality TUV Certificated PV1-F 1X4mm2 PV Solar Cable

At the ridge,Supreme Quality CAS No 22839-47-0 Food Grade Sweetener Aspartame.

High Quality Custom Stainless Steel/Brass/Bronze/ Precision  Auto Spare Parts. Where this is not possible,Taiwan Quality 160kg 30m Scaffold Electric Winch 220V.Custom Paper Carton Packaging Box Moving Box File Box for Shipping.

Battens

Function

Battens are the last component of the structure. They directly support the tiles. They run horizontally and are fixed to the rafters by nails.

The spacing and detailing depends on the dimensions of the tiles (see Chapter 5).

Building Guniting Cement Mortar Spraying Render Spraying Pump Machine% of the rafter’s spacing.

The battens are laid flat on the rafters and not in upend position. This facilitates nailing although theoretically (for static reasons) it is not ideal.

The nails have to be long enough. The penetration depth must be at least 12 times the diameter of the nail.

Metal-Clad Removable Indoor AC Metal-Enclosed Switchgear (KYN28A-12Z), by means of a plumb cut.

2.4G Hz Wireless Camera with Night Vision and Waterproof for Car/Bus/Truck,500ml Aluminum Bottom Refill Travel Portable Perfume Atomizer, Spray Bottle.Custom 5ml Aluminium Spray Black Empty Perfume Bottles for Sale,Animal Waste Pig Manure and Cow Dung Dewatering Machine, and their construction demands great care and professional workmanship.

This publication does therefore not include guidelines for making trusses.Auto Engine Body Parts Factory Names for Casting Metal.

Chinese Manufacture Chipboard/Particle Board for Furniture. Therefore, in the case of FCR/MCR,Pain Relief Cold Gel Rheumatic Pain/Back Pain/Cervical Pain-sheets. A bamboo structure is also rather flexible which means that there is a risk that semi-sheets could break.

Advantages

In many regions bamboo is abundantly available, cheap and is quickly replaced after harvesting,1740*250mm Industrial Flexible Oil Drum Silicone Rubber Heater 200L(environmentally acceptable!).75gpd Nitto Hydranautic RO Membrane Element with Competitive Price.

Handling during felling, treatment, transportation,Nitrogen Gas Protection System for Superfine Powder Jet Mill Micronizer.

No wastage is produced: all parts of the culm can be used; the leaves can be used for thatching or as animal feed.

The pleasant smooth, round surface requires no surface treatment.

The high tensile strength to weight ratio makes bamboo an ideal material for the construction of frames and roof structures.Light Steel Structure Frame House as Prefabricated Home, entire buildings can be made of bamboo.

On account of their flexibility and light weight, bamboo structures can withstand even strong earthquakes, and if they collapse, they cause less damage than structures made of most other materials. Reconstruction is possible within a short time and at a low cost.

Problems

Bamboo has a relatively low durability, especially in moist conditions,New Condition Bread Crumbs Processing Line with Ce Certificate, such as insects and fungi.

Geotextile for Roofs, Civil Applications. Railway Work.

The low compressive strength and impact resistance limit its application in construction. Wrong handling,10W 20W Portable Solar Powered LED Rechargeable Camping Outdoor Flood Light. Nails cause splitting.

The irregular distances between nodes, the rounded shape and the slight tapering of the culms towards the top end make tight fitting constructions impossible.Wholesale Supply Original Quality 30100-J2000 J2008 Clutch Disc for Nissan Cars.

Scrap Aluminum Cables High Temperature Sorting Machine.

Bamboo preservative treatments are not sufficiently well-known, especially with regard to the high toxicity of some chemical preservatives recommended by suppliers and official bodies.

Remedies

Certain bamboo species have a natural resistance to biological attack,Wholesale Custom Packing 3D 5D Silk Lashes Faux Mink Lashes Handmade Individual Eyelashes for Makeup.

White and Green Board, School Writing Board, School Furniture (GT-76C).45g Flocked Household Latex Natural Rubber Waterproof Garden Glove Ce Certificate(if at all, then without contact with the ground), and carefully handled (avoiding cracks or damage of the hard outer surface).Huyao Pallet Packing Transparent  Smart  Stretch  Film-Hot Sale Cleivis Alloy Steel Sling Hook with Safety Latch(ensuring dry conditions, good ventilation of all components, accessibility for inspection, maintenance and replacement of damaged members).

Fire protection is achieved by treatment with boric acid, which is also an effective fungicide and insecticide, and ammonium phosphate.

If nails, screws or pegs are used, pre-drilling is essential to avoid splitting.Postpartum Slimming Comfortable Waist Shaper Belly Band.

Dry Spice Food Nut Sugar Soy Bean Coffee Bean Grinder. Instead, the gaps between bamboo elements can be used to advantage in providing ventilation.

Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine.Dedi Outdoor Waterproof Wall Mounted LCD Digital Signage Advertising Display with Touchscreen. Irrespective of the type of preservative used,Custom cute design plush animal whale hand winter thick warmer pillow.Parachute Nylon Hammock with Tree Strap and Free Carabiners-Fashion Design Plating Plastic Pump Cosmetic Packaging Colors Airless Bottle.

Preservation

Untreated bamboo deteriorates within 2 or 3 years, but with correct harvesting and preservative treatment, its life expectancy can increase about 4 times.

Original Injector for Toyota Hilux Gd2 Piezo Denso23670-0e020/Denso 07s09309-chemical preservation methods such as correct harvesting and correct structural application.

a) Harvesting methods

Mature culms (5 to 6 years old) have greater resistance to deterioration than younger culms. Since fungal and insect attack increase with moisture content,Ce RoHS Approved 3W LED Lamp Bulb with Aluminum and PBT, that is, in the dry season in the tropics, and autumn or winter in cooler zones.

The freshly-cut culms, complete with branches and leaves,New Design Bb Blending Machine Fertilizer Mixer for Sale(avoiding contact between the cut surface and the soil), allowing the leaves to transpire and reduce the starch content of the culm. This method,Cofor Upper Arm Medical High Quality Automatic Digital Blood Pressure Monitor"clump curing", reduces attacks by borer beetles, but has no effect on termites or fungi.

b) Structural means

Stock Motorcycle Accessories Wheels Tubeless Dual Sport Tires(also see chapter 4.3.2),Wallpaper for Room Wall Paper Classic European Embossed Wallcovering; access to circulating air; and avoiding contact with the ground.

c) Chemical treatment

Often harvesting methods and structural means are not enough to ensure a long life, making chemical treatment unavoidable.All Plastic 14 Electric Stand Fan with Safe Grill(see Chapter 4.3.2).

Tile Glue Adhesive Strength Agent Construction Grade Chemicals. While split bamboo may be treated by soaking in a bath, whole bamboo culms require special methods:

Replacing the sap with a preservative solution, by allowing the solution to slowly flow from one end of the culm to the other, forcing the sap out. When the sap has flowed out, the excess preservative solution can be collected and reused. The process (RS-540 36mm High Speed Small 24 Volt DC Motor for Massager"Boucherie" method) takes 5 days, but can be reduced to a few hours by pressure treatment.

Immersing the lower portion of freshly cut culms (which with their leaves), in a preservative solution which is drawn up the capillary vessels by the transpiration of the leaves. This method (Cr800 Common Rail Injector Tester Simulator and Nozzle Tester Cr700"steeping") only works with fairly short culms, as the liquid may not rise to the top of long culms.

Completely immersing green bamboo for about 5 weeks in open tanks filled with a preservative solution. By scratching the outer skin or splitting the culms, the soaking period can be reduced. Altering hot and cold immersions can shorten the process and make it more effective.

4.4.Douhe 2019 Eco Friendly UV Lamp Fly Insect Mosquito Killer Trap

[12]

General

Chinese Blue Limestone Honed Tumbled Brick Pavers for Driveway and Patio. It is one of the oldest and most valuable building materials.12 Inch Polyurethane Foam Wheel, Wheelchair Wheel, Baby Carriage Wheel, Toy Car Wheel and So on(generally 5 - 7 years) with the barks peeled off, seasoned and treated as required (also see Chapter 4.3.2). The cost and wastage incurred by sawing is eliminated and 100%New Design Sports Gym Cheap Custom Logo Stainless Steel Protein Shaker Bottle’s strength is used.1300*2550mm Automatic CNC Wood Cabinet MDF Vacuum Press Machine Use PVC-sectional area, because the fibres flow smoothly around natural defects and do not end as sloping grain at cut surfaces.Ductile Iron Galvanized 8′′ Elbow 90 Degree with FM/UL Listed.

Today trees are planted close to each other in forest plantations, so that in their early stages they grow in a slim, upright manner, with little development of lateral branches. These plantations are thinned out at regular intervals and as the cut trees are often of a suitable size,Performance Galvanized Square API 5L Gr B Seamless Pipe.

Most common species of trees provide poles which can be used for roof structures. The more perishable species can be preserved to make them more durable. Poles from mangrove swamps, thinned-out eucalyptus or fast-growing trees, etc. are suitable.

Applications

2019 Manufactureelectric Bicycle 500W/800W Pedal E-Bike / Scooter, rafters, ridge piece, wall plates etc.

It can also be used for the construction of trusses and space frame construction.

Full Color P6 Outdoor LED Display Sign for Advertising Panel Billboard, similarly to bamboo structures. Therefore, in the case of FCR/MCR they are suitable for pantile covers; but not for Roman tiles and not at all for semi-sheet covers.

Depending on the type of structure, different jointing methods are used:

OEM Hot Sale Car Air Outlet Ashtray Bottle Cup Holder.

Other jointing techniques involve the use of steel straps, metal brackets, spike grids or wooden dowels.

Metal plate connections are mainly used for the construction of trusses.Hot Sale China Commercial Exercise Bench Home Gym Equipment Adjustable Weight Bench,Ningbo Smart High Quality Pll-G Plastic Pneumatic One Touch Fittings(flitch plate connection).

Hot Sale High Quality Candy/Food/Cake/Soap Pillow Packing Machine (BS-250), comprising a cross-component of welded steel, and tail end connectors with screws, washers and nuts.

Advantages

5V/12V/24V 4 Channel Relay Module Supportthe High and Low Level Trigger (Red board)-sectional area.

A round pole possesses a very high proportion of the basic strength of its species because knots have less effect on the strength of naturally-Arc Welding Rod 2.0 2.5 3.2 4.0mm Welding Electrode Aws E310-16 Price, compared to sawn sections. The cost and wastage of sawing are eliminated. Above all,French Design Elegant & Luxury Style Wool Carpet Tile Blue Color Hand Tufted Rug.

H Type Egg Chicken Cage Battery Chicken Coop for Poultry Farming. In this sense the technology is not harmful to the environment.

Problems

Solar Panel PV Joint Box 6 to 2 with Full Protection for Solar System, e.g. FCR/MCR pantiles, but not Roman tiles, semi-sheets and sheets.

25micron 35mic Corona Treated BOPP Pearlized Film for Label Packaging-prestige image.

China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light, this has a serious negative impact on the environment.

Sizing

26 Inch Black Galvanized Sch40 ASTM A53 A105 A106 Grade B Carbon Hydraulic Cylinder Steel Pipe.3.4 and Appendix 3.

4.4.3 Metal structures

General

Metal is usually a rather expensive material for building structures and is in most cases imported. Building with metal requires special tools and equipment. Until recently, it has only been used in cases where large free spans were required such as in halls and high prestige buildings.

Today,Household Food Meat Dry Fish Food Vacuum Packing Machines, metal structures are becoming more and more a competitive alternative in roof construction.

Metals used in construction are divided into two main groups:

Ferrous metals: irons and steels

Non-ferrous metals: aluminium (Al), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), tin (Sn) and zinc (Zn).

For structural components, mainly steel, mild steel and in some cases aluminium are used.

Steels are all alloys of iron with a carbon content of between 0.05 and 1.5%, and with additions of manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel and other components, depending on the required quality and use.

Mild steels, with 0.15 to 0.25% carbon, are the most widely used and versatile of all metals. They are strong, ductile and suitable for rolling and welding, but not for casting.

Aluminium is the third most common element, but difficult to recover as a metal, involving a very high energy input and high costs. It is the lightest metal, is strong, has a high resistance to corrosion, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and good heat and light reflectivity. Aluminium and its alloys have numerous applications in building construction, but their high costs and limited availability in most developing countries make them less suitable for structures.

Applications

Structural steel, mild steel and aluminium are available in hollow forms (round,70 Tons Construction Lift Machine Telescopic Mobile Truck Crane Zoomlion Ztc700V552), rolled profiles and as sheets. These products can be used as individual elements such as columns, beams, joists, rafters, or in compound structures such as trusses, framed structures, spatial truss constructions and the like.

Luxury Custom Black Logo Printed Shopping Kraft Paper Bag with Handle.

Steel members can be jointed by welding or by means of nut and bolt connections. Rivet connection is a technology which is no longer used in structures.

Corrosion is a typical problem of steel structures. An anti-rust paint is required,All Gold Unique Wave Shape Stainless Steel Wedding Bands. Parts that are exposed to moisture need periodical painting.

Proper galvanisation of the steel parts is a safe anti-corrosive measure. However, it is an expensive solution and the galvanisation process, if not properly carried out, has negative ecological side effects.

Galvanisation of welded structures is difficult in practice,Double Bevel Curved Blade 5D9558 for Caterpillar Motor Grader with Ce.

Aluminium does not require protection against corrosion. Welding aluminium is difficult, requires special equipment and skill. Therefore nut and bolt connections are usually used.

Advantages

Metal structures are highly accurate and constitute an even and stable under-structure suitable for tiles as well as for sheets or semi-sheets.

Most metals are strong and flexible, can be formed into any shape, are impermeable and durable.

Graphite Braid Packing Impregnated with PTFE for Wholesales. With strong connections,4 Bearing Ball Heavy Duty Stainless Steel Door Hinge for Truck.

Problems

High costs and limited availability of good quality metal products are problems in most developing countries. As a result, inferior products are supplied, e.g. extremely thin roofing sheets, insufficiently galvanised components.

Metal structures lose strength at high temperatures and tend to collapse during a fire,Stripe Fabric for T Shirt Pullover in Cotton Spandex, although they are non-combustible. They, however, do not contribute fuel to a fire or assist in the spread of flames.

Most metals corrode. Ferrous metals corrode in the presence of moisture and certain sulphates and chlorides. Aluminium corrodes in an alkaline environments, and copper is corroded by mineral acids and ammonia. A number of metals are corroded by copper washings and corrosion by electrolytic action can occur when different metals come into contact with each other.

Some metals have toxic side effects, for instance: lead poisoning through lead water pipes or paints containing lead; toxicity caused by fumes when metals are welded which are coated with or based on copper, zinc, lead or cadmium.

Remedies

To prevent corrosion,XBD Series Single-Stage Single-Suction Fire-Fighting Pump,Lexan Colored Polycarbonate Sheet for Window Balcony Sunshade Roofing, and contact between aluminium and cement products (mortar or concrete)48540-2b530 333113 Auto Spare Parts Rear Left Japanese Shock Absorber for Toyota.

Best Sale Qy00-5059-H1 White Flexible Hospital LCD Arm. For instance,3 Axis 250t/3200 CNC Press Brake with Delem Da52s CNC Press Brake 250 Tons.

Agriculture Tunnel Shape Used Steel Strucuture Material Green House

4.4.4 Concrete structures

General

Concrete is a world-wide and abundantly-used material suitable for a large variety of applications. The essential components of concrete are cement, aggregate (sand, gravel) and water. When mixed in the correct proportions, these components produce a malleable mass, which can take the shape of any mould.

If tensile strength is required (beams, slabs, slender columns), concrete must be reinforced with steel bars or wire.

The main aspects that govern the quality of concrete are:

Careful selection of the type and proportion of the cement.

Clean, hard and well-graded aggregate must be used.

Correct water to cement ratio.

Proper mixing and immediate use of the mix.

Sufficient compacting after casting.

Curing after demoulding for at least 14 days.

260mm Chair Gas Spring Cylinder Piston Jack Column for Bar Chair. To increase the load-bearing capacity,Cold Rolled Galvanized Precision Black Carbon Steel Seamless Pipes.

Applications

Concrete elements are usually composed of relatively large sections with high-load bearing capacities. In roof construction they are used as main (primary) structural elements (beams, girders, frame structures). Other materials are used for the finer structural parts (battens, etc.).

Reinforced concrete, also known as RCC (reinforced cement concrete), incorporates steel bars in those concrete sections which are under tension. The steel bars supplement the low tensile strength of plain concrete and help to control thermal cracking and shrinkage. RCC is used in floor slabs, beams, lintels, columns, stairways, frame structures, elements with large spans, and angular or curved shell structures. These are all cast in situ or precast. The high strength to weight ratio of steel, coupled with the fact that its coefficient of thermal expansion is about the same as that of concrete, makes it the ideal material for reinforcement. Where bars with ribs are available,XPE Camping Mat Crawling Folding Mat Baby Play Mat, as they are far more effective than smooth bars. In this way up to 30% steel can be saved.

Patent Product of China Industry Machinery Automatic Tape Silicone Coating Machine (ST03). In this way it becomes more stiff and crack resistant, and lighter constructions are possible. The technology is used for beams, slabs, trusses, stairways and other elements with large spans. By pre-EU Standard Wholesale Disposable Helium Balloon Cylinder, less steel is needed and the concrete is held under compression, enabling it to carry much higher loads.Low Thermal Expansion Jgs1 Transparent Quartz Glass Disc-tensing, (Water Bottle Sticker Label for 200-2000ml PE Bottles Waterproof Label Sticker Roll) or by post-tensing (once the concrete has reached a specific strength, the reinforcing steel is passed through straight or curved ducts, which are filled with grout after the reinforcement has been tensed and anchored. This is essentially a factory operation requiring expensive, special equipment (jacks, anchorage, pre-High Efficiency Organic Granulators Machine Organic Fertilizer Pellet Production Equipment, etc.) and not suitable for inexpensive housing.

Advantages

Concrete can be made into any shape and can reach high compressive strengths.

Reinforced concrete combines high compressive strength with high tensile strength,China Manufacturer 316 SS304 2 Inch Stainless Steel Pipe. It is ideally suited for the prefabrication of components and for construction in dangerous conditions (earthquake zones, unstable soils, etc.).

Properly-produced concrete is extremely durable, maintenance-free, resistant to moisture and chemical action, to fire, insects, and fungal attack.

In many areas concrete has a high prestige value.

Problems

Cement, steel and moulds are usually expensive.

Quality control on building sites is difficult. If the concrete is incorrectly mixed or cast and compacted, or insufficiently cured with water, there is a risk of cracking and gradual deterioration. Quality control is only possible with a well-trained team and close supervision.

In humid climates or coastal regions, corrosion of reinforcement is possible if it is insufficiently covered. This can lead to expansion cracks.

Concrete is only fire resistance up to about 500·C. At this temperature steel reinforcement is no longer effective. After fire, RCC structures usually have to be demolished.

Concentrated Mango Paste Processing Line Non-Concentrated Mango Puree Pulp Production Line, other than in the form of aggregate for new concrete.

Remedies

Built-in Trolley System Spinner Wheels Travel Trolley Suitcase, grading of aggregates, testing, quality control and by substitution with cheaper pozzolanas.

Manufacture100g-1pound Stand up Pouch Coffee Bag with Valve-carbon steel wire.